Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds & Shape Our Futures

Anthropomorphism is the human tendency to apply human attributes to other organisms. Many biologists seek to avoid anthropomorphizing their study subjects. Sheldrake is conflicted about the use of anthropomorphism within mycology. On one hand, concepts like the fungal “brain” and the “wood wide web” oversimplify the reality of fungal networks. However, since fungi influence nearly every aspect of life on Earth, Sheldrake wonders if many of the “human” concepts applied to fungi are actually fungal concepts to begin with.

The extended phenotype is a concept posed by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins. He believes that an organism’s phenotype (the physical structure of its body) can be extended to include things that the organism builds and other life forms that are necessary for the organism’s survival. For example, a particular style of nest is part of the extended phenotype of many birds. Dawkins has a strict set of rules that any potential part of an extended phenotype must conform to, as he does not want the idea to be used too loosely. Sheldrake speculates that fungi challenge Dawkins’s rules, and that they can open researchers’ eyes to the probable reality in which everything in a given ecosystem is interconnected in some way and must remain in balance to ensure the survival of each species as well as the ecosystem as a whole.

Extremophiles are organisms that can survive where nothing else can. They are often lichen and bacteria. These organisms have evolved to withstand intense heat, noxious chemicals, massive pressure, lack of light and nutrients, etc. Extremophiles have been found living deep inside the Earth’s crust, in the fuel tanks of jet engines, and in superheated thermal vents. The thermal pools in Yellowstone National Park, for example, develop their distinct bright colors because of extremophiles that live there.

Most fungi species are made up of hyphae cells, which make up networks of branching filaments known as mycelia. In many fungal species, hyphae filaments clump together to produce fruiting bodies known as mushrooms.

Lichens are a combination of fungi and algae or bacteria. They grow across the world and are particularly suited to harsh environments. Often, lichens are the first life to appear in highly disturbed landscapes, such as cooled lava flows. They begin the process of soil development, which then allows other plants to grow.

Every animal on earth has a microbiome, a colony of bacteria and fungi that live within the creature and help break down food, fight disease, and produce other benefits in exchange for nutrients and a place to live. Microbiomes are an example of a symbiotic relationship (see below). However, antibacterial and antifungal products damage human microbiomes. This is risky, as harmful microbes are able to colonize more easily where there is little competition.

Most fungi consist of cells called hyphae (see above), which grow into a branching, tangled network known as a mycelium. While mycelia grow in many locations, most are found underground or in nutrient-rich places like rotting logs. These networks can grow to enormous size and act as conduits to transport water and nutrients to all parts of the fungus. Some mycelia are electrically conductive, showing similar traits to animal nervous systems.

Myco-heterotrophs are plants that do not photosynthesize. Instead, they garner all necessary nutrients by tapping into other plants’ roots and the associated fungal mycelia. This plant group includes some of the most distinctive species on earth, including most orchids. Sheldrake is particularly interested in myco-heterotrophs, having spent his fieldwork in Panama studying Voyria, a small tropical flower that lives in this manner.

Mycorrhizal fungi establish symbiotic relationships with plants. They make up the majority of the vast underground network known as the “wood wide web.” Most mycorrhizal fungi live inside plant roots and act as an extension of the roots themselves. Tiny hyphal filaments grow outward from the thinnest ends of the roots, covering long distances and entering tiny rock cracks where the roots cannot reach. This allows the fungi to receive nutrients from a plant’s photosynthesis process, while the plant gleans minerals from the earth via the fungi. Both use the network to communicate with other organisms.

During the Devonian period, prior to the evolution of large plants and vertebrate animals, prototaxites were the largest living organisms on earth. They dominated the planet for over 40 million years. Paleobotanists (paleontologists who specialize in prehistoric plants) speculate that prototaxites were an early form of fungus.

Psilocybin is a compound found in the fruiting bodies of several species of fungus. When consumed by humans (and possibly other animals and insects), it induces a surge of brain activity and an altered state of consciousness. Sheldrake speculates that this function must have some benefit to the fungi, but there is no known reason for psilocybin’s existence. Humans have used the compound for thousands of years in shamanic work, and modern researchers have begun to investigate its ability to treat mental illness.

Radical mycology is both a concept and an organization led by Peter McCoy. Adherents to the idea of radical mycology believe that fungi can be harnessed by humans for a huge variety of different purposes and can even mitigate the destruction that humans have caused on Earth. Many radical mycologists are amateurs without well funded research projects or fully equipped labs. They use simple tools, many of them developed by psilocybin mushroom growers, to cultivate fungi and test various hypotheses.