Gulag: A History

Stalin (1878-1953) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death in 1953. He transformed the Soviet Union from an agrarian society into an industrial and military superpower. However, this transformation came at a tremendous human cost, including the widespread use of forced labor in the Gulag system. Stalin’s policies of collectivization and rapid industrialization, coupled with his ruthless suppression of perceived enemies through mass arrests, executions, and the extensive network of Gulag camps, are central themes in Gulag.

Stalin’s significance in the work is multifaceted, reflecting his direct involvement in and influence over the establishment and expansion of the Gulag system. His paranoia and desire for absolute control led to the Great Terror of the late 1930s, during which millions were arrested and sent to labor camps or executed. Stalin’s policies and directives were instrumental in shaping the Gulag’s scale and severity, making him a pivotal figure in any discussion of Soviet repression and the state’s machinery of terror.

Further, Stalin’s death in 1953 marked a turning point for the Soviet Union and the Gulag system. Applebaum explores the immediate aftermath of his demise, highlighting the sense of uncertainty and the potential for change that followed. The eventual thaw and partial dismantling of the camp system under his successors underscore the impact of Stalin’s policies on Soviet society and the enduring legacy of his rule.

Solzhenitsyn (1918-2018) was a major figure in 20th-century Russian literature and a notable dissident during the Soviet Union. Solzhenitsyn was a decorated captain in the Soviet Army during World War II before being arrested for making derogatory comments about Stalin in a private letter, an event that marked the beginning of his long and torturous relationship with the Soviet penal system. In 1945, he was sentenced to eight years in the Gulag under Article 58 (See: Index of Terms). Upon his release in 1953, he served a further stint of internal exile in Kazakhstan, where he began to assemble his research materials for The Gulag Archipelago.

Solzhenitsyn’s first major literary success was One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, an account of an ordinary prisoner’s day in a labor camp. The novella was published in the Russian literary magazine Novy Mir in 1962 during Krushchev’s “thaw.” It was one of the first major literary works to address the Gulag system. The book appeared abroad in translation the following year, bringing Solzhenitsyn fame both within the Soviet Union and in the West. The work’s publication and Solzhenitsyn’s growing celebrity led to tension between Solzhenitsyn and the Soviet political and literary establishment, which accused him of dissident views. In 1970, he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The Soviet authorities increased their surveillance of Solzhenitsyn, expelling him from the Union of Writers in 1969 and confiscating manuscripts.

The Gulag Archipelago was written in secret and first circulated as a form of samizdat, hand-typed copies of dissident works shared among writers and readers to evade the regime’s censorship. The three-volume work combines Solzhenitsyn’s personal experiences of imprisonment with other primary testimonies and historical data, challenging the Soviet regime’s official narratives. This work was smuggled out of the Soviet Union and first published officially in the West in 1973. The work became a huge success, selling millions of copies and sparking much debate among Western intellectuals about the Soviet regime. The work played a crucial role in bringing the realities of the Gulag into the global consciousness, undermining the Soviet Union’s international image and contributing to the broader discourse on human rights and state-sponsored terror. In 1974, Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Soviet Union. He would live in exile until 1994, when he returned to post-Soviet Russia.

In Applebaum’s Gulag, Solzhenitsyn’s life and legacy underscore the significance of individual voices and literature in confronting the abuses of power. His unyielding commitment to truth telling, despite personal risks and the Soviet government’s efforts to silence him, highlights Resilience in the Face of Adversity. Through Solzhenitsyn, Applebaum illustrates not just the historical facts of the Gulag but also the enduring spirit of resistance among its victims, emphasizing the importance of memory and testimony in the ongoing quest for historical accountability and justice.

Beria (1899-1953) was the head of the Soviet secret police (the NKVD) and later the Minister of Internal Affairs. He was one of the most pivotal figures in the machinery of Soviet repression and the administration of the Gulag system. His tenure is marked by an unparalleled ruthlessness in overseeing mass arrests, deportations, and the execution of thousands, reflecting a period of intense terror within the Soviet Union. Beria’s operational efficiency and brutal tactics were instrumental in expanding the Gulag system.

Beria’s significance within the context of the Gulag is twofold. Firstly, his direct involvement in the mass purges and the enforcement of Stalin’s repressive policies exemplifies the intertwining of political power with systemic violence. Under his command, the NKVD became a formidable tool for eliminating perceived threats to Soviet authority, utilizing the Gulag not just as a means of punishment but as a deterrent against dissent. Secondly, Beria’s influence extended beyond his tenure, as the policies and practices he implemented set precedents for the treatment of prisoners and the management of the camps. His legacy, as detailed by Applebaum, serves as a testament to the extremes of authoritarian control and the human cost of maintaining such a system.

Further, Beria’s story intersects with broader themes of Applebaum’s work, particularly the use of terror and surveillance as mechanisms for sustaining the Soviet state’s grip over its citizens. His ability to instill fear, both within the general populace and within the ranks of the Communist Party, underscores the central role of intimidation and coercion in the Soviet political landscape. In analyzing Beria’s actions and policies, Applebaum elucidates the complexities of power dynamics within the Soviet Union, illustrating how individuals like Beria were instrumental in shaping the trajectory of Soviet history and the lives of countless individuals ensnared in the Gulag system.