Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion

Cialdini describes the rapid growth of behavioral science studies as a series of efforts to solve various real-world problems. In describing certain experiments, he tells of a study in which a person called “a learner” and a person called “a teacher” work together to recall paired words. When the learner fails to get the words right, the teacher must administer an electric shock. An authority figure, who is a professor, instructs the teacher to increase these shocks. The learner complains about the pain and eventually begs for release. The shocks continue, with the teacher refusing to stop.

In “The Power of Authority Pressure,” Cialdini describes this scenario—shocking a volunteer—as sounding like a bad dream. He then relates that the experiment did not actually involve any shocks at all. The learner was an actor pretending to be shocked. The purpose of the experiment was to determine to what degree a subject would respond to an authority figure who tells them to inflict pain on an innocent person. To the surprise of the researchers, two thirds of the teachers went all the way to 450 volts. The researcher who conducted the study said this willingness resulted from a sense of duty to authority. To Cialdini, this explanation seems correct. He writes, “There are sobering implications of this finding for those concerned about the ability of another form of authority—government—to extract frightening levels of obedience from ordinary citizens” (207).

In “The Allures and Dangers of Blind Obedience,” Cialdini discusses the importance of having a society made up of layers of people in positions of authority. He describes the necessity of having people who can tell others what is right and wrong and share valuable information. He writes that having an authority is an essential shortcut that helps us know how to act in certain situations. On the other hand, he says, it is easy to fall into the trap of being automatically obedient.

He uses as an example the field of medicine, where well-trained doctors sit at the top of the structure of authority. The problem is there is no one who can check the authority of their decisions. He points out that, as a result of medical errors, 40% of outpatient and primary care patients are harmed by medical errors every year. A study of why this occurs states that those who are beneath the authority of the doctor, including patients, nurses, pharmacists, and other doctors, do not question the doctor’s orders.

The following section, “Connotation, Not Content,” talks about the remarkable manner in which one does not need to have the authority to be persuasive—merely looking like an authority can persuade others to take action. Cialdini describes the propensity of con artists to adopt the trappings of authority. He says the accoutrements of authority fall into three categories.

The first of these is “Titles.” Experiments show that, when an individual expresses a title of authority, that individual is suddenly treated differently by others. In fact, those who are seen in positions of authority are generally perceived as being physically taller than they actually are. Cialdini refers to the second attribute of authority as “Clothes.” Studies reveal that those who are better dressed are treated with greater respect in crisis situations and that people will respond to the authority of those who are simply better dressed than others.

A third group of attributes that contributes to one’s air of authority is referred to as “Trappings.” These include items that cause individuals to stand apart from the ordinary. For instance, studies show that those who drive expensive automobiles are given extra preference in traffic; drivers will wait longer at a stoplight before honking at a luxury car than an economy car. The author points out that con artists are schooled in how to use these attributes to sway others into believing they have authority.

In “The Credible Authority,” Cialdini describes the attributes of a person with actual authority. He says such leaders are often trained not to take the “command and control” approach of giving direct orders but rather to seek willing cooperation. This works well since most people do not like to be given orders but will gladly take direction from those who know more than they do. In “Expertise,” he writes, “A credible authority possesses two distinct features in the mind of an audience: expertise and trustworthiness” (226). When someone exudes the air of expertise, it creates a “halo effect,” making others perceive them as superior in a variety of ways. Likewise, in “Trustworthiness,” a person’s honest expression of imperfection instantly conveys an air of reliability.

In his section on “Defense” against the misuse of an authority’s power, Cialdini notes it is not difficult for the symbols of authority to be faked. The most important defense against faux authority is an awareness of what an authority in a certain area should know and what the limits of someone’s authority should be. He writes, “The trick is to recognize without much strain or vigilance when an authority’s directives are best followed and when they are not” (231). In “Authoritativeness,” he poses certain questions to ask, such as, “Is this authority truly an expert?” (232).

Many times, celebrities and other notable people are asked to represent products that are outside their area of expertise. It is important to ask what they know about what they represent. In “Sly Sincerity,” Cialdini asks if an authority figure should be expected to be completely truthful and if they can be trusted or are going to sway the facts to persuade others because, for instance, they have a financial stake in what they are saying.