Mahabharata

Nonfiction | Scripture | Adult | BCE

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Translator’s Preface-Chapter 5

Chapters 6-13

Chapters 14-21

Chapters 22-29

Chapters 30-37

Key Figures

Themes

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Key Figures

Bhishma

Bhishma, also known as Devavrata, is one of the most important figures in Slavitt’s translation of the Mahabharata. As recounted by Slavitt, Bhishma’s story begins with the context of his birth and ends with his death. As the son of King Shantanu and the river goddess Ganga, Bhishma is born into a life shaped by celestial influence and human sacrifice. His origins mark him with divine qualities, as he is the human incarnation of a sky god, the leader of the eight Vasus cursed to live on earth due to a transgression against a rishi (sage). Bhishma’s birth reflects both the greatness and tragedy of his life, as he carries the burden of a celestial punishment that transforms him into a figure of sacrifice, loyalty, and martial prowess.

The defining moment in Bhishma’s life—and the origin of his name, meaning “terrible”—occurs when he renounces his right to the throne and vows never to marry, ensuring that his father, Shantanu, can marry Satyavati, a woman from a fisherman’s family, whose father demands that her sons accede to the throne. Bhishma’s vow casts a long shadow over the Bharata dynasty, setting off a chain of events that will lead to the Kurukshetra War. Bhishma’s celibacy and loyalty to the throne, despite its injustice toward him, embody the ideals of dharma (duty) and self-sacrifice that are central to the epic’s themes. His character exemplifies the tragic irony of the Mahabharata: Bound by honor and duty, Bhishma finds himself helpless to prevent the dynastic strife that he, in part, enabled; he ultimately has to sacrifice himself to end it.

Throughout the Mahabharata, Bhishma serves as a respected elder and advisor, even to those who oppose him. His wisdom and knowledge of dharma make him a revered figure, yet his allegiance to the throne forces him into moral conflict. He remains loyal to the Kaurava side during the war, fighting against his beloved grandsons, the Pandavas. His death, a culmination of his vow to choose the time of his passing, marks one of the war’s most notable moments, symbolizing the inevitable fall of the old order. In Slavitt’s retelling, Bhishma’s story captures the timeless tragedy of a hero torn between duty and the futility of human efforts to control destiny, highlighting the complexities of honor, loyalty, and the inescapable consequences of one’s choices.

Arjuna

Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers, is one of the Mahabharata’s most skilled warriors and a figure of notable moral and philosophical exploration. Known for his unmatched prowess in archery, Arjuna is the son of Kunti and the god Indra, granting him divine strength and a noble spirit. Throughout the epic, he is characterized by his commitment to dharma, although he faces frequent ethical dilemmas that challenge his understanding of right and wrong. His journey, marked by moments of doubt and enlightenment, reflects the complex nature of duty, loyalty, and honor in a world overshadowed by warfare and familial discord.

One of Arjuna’s defining moments occurs on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, where he is paralyzed by moral anguish as he faces the prospect of fighting his own kin, mentors, and friends. In this moment of crisis, Krishna, his charioteer and the avatar of Vishnu, imparts the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna explains the nature of the self, the importance of detachment, and the concept of selfless action. This dialogue, central to Hindu philosophy (and intentionally left out of Slavitt’s adaptation), becomes a transformative experience for Arjuna. He learns that acting with equanimity and adherence to one’s dharma, even when it involves personal sacrifice, is essential for maintaining cosmic order. Through Krishna’s guidance, Arjuna reconciles his duty as a warrior with his inner conflict, emerging as a representative of righteousness who acts not for personal gain but in alignment with the universal order.

Arjuna’s relationships with his family and friends further reveal his layered personality. His bond with Krishna is not only that of a disciple to a teacher but also one of friendship and spiritual kinship. His loyalty to his brothers, particularly his willingness to share Draupadi as their common wife, underscores his dedication to family unity, even at the cost of personal sacrifice. Despite his occasional doubts and impulsive reactions, Arjuna’s commitment to his family’s welfare and his duty as a member of the kshatriya warrior caste remain steadfast, reinforcing his role as both a hero and a seeker of truth.

Draupadi

Draupadi, one of the central figures in the Mahabharata, embodies resilience, complexity, and the spirit of resistance. Born from a sacrificial fire, Draupadi is both a gift and a challenge to the dynastic struggles between the Pandavas and Kauravas. Her birth is no ordinary one; she emerges as an adult woman, granted to King Drupada as a means of revenge against the Kuru line. This unusual beginning foreshadows her significant and tumultuous role in the epic. As the wife of the five Pandavas, Draupadi serves as a binding force within the family; her influence and strength shape both the personal and political dimensions of the Pandavas’ journey.

Draupadi’s life is marked by both power and suffering, and she becomes a symbol of dignity under pressure, particularly during the infamous dice game, where she is publicly humiliated after being wagered away by her husband Yudhishthira. When Dushasana attempts to disrobe her in front of the court, Draupadi calls upon Krishna/Vishnu, who intervenes, endlessly extending her sari and thus preserving her dignity. This moment of divine intervention highlights her status as a figure of divine favor and resilience, yet it also underscores the injustice she faces—a public shaming that echoes the event that begins the whole saga, the accidental denuding of the goddess Ganga. Draupadi’s indignation and demand for justice fuel the Pandavas’ resolve, ultimately leading to the Kurukshetra War. Her suffering becomes a rallying point for the Pandavas, symbolizing the moral cause behind their conflict with the Kauravas.

Draupadi’s complexity lies in her simultaneous embodying of a dutiful wife and an outspoken critic of the patriarchal structures that define her world. She often challenges her husbands and the elders, questioning the ethics of their actions, especially when they fail to protect her honor. Her intelligence, wisdom, and sense of justice cause her to consistently speak out against wrongdoing, regardless of the perpetrator. Draupadi is a driving force in the narrative. Her presence embodies the conflicts at the heart of the Mahabharata—dharma versus adharma, duty versus desire, and personal integrity versus social obligations—illustrating the epic’s exploration of justice, honor, and the price of loyalty.

Duryodhana

Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kaurava brothers and the primary antagonist in the Mahabharata, represents ambition, pride, and the complex dynamics of familial rivalry. Born to King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gandhari, Duryodhana grows up as the natural heir to the throne of Hastinapura. However, his legitimacy is complicated by the existence of his cousins, the Pandavas, who possess a stronger claim to the throne due to their lineage and merit. From a young age, Duryodhana resents the Pandavas, particularly Bhima, who frequently humiliates him, both in physical prowess and in social standing. This rivalry fuels Duryodhana’s desire to dominate and displace the Pandavas; his actions throughout the epic largely stem from this personal vendetta, intertwined with his ambition to secure his own rule.

Duryodhana’s sense of entitlement and his unyielding nature make him a divisive character. On one hand, he seems to genuinely believe that he is protecting his birthright and his family’s legacy. His refusal to compromise or share power with the Pandavas stems from his conviction that he, as the eldest son of King Dhritarashtra, deserves the throne. His unwavering resolve, however, often borders on arrogance and cruelty, leading him to devise schemes to eliminate the Pandavas, such as the Varanavata palace conspiracy and the public humiliation of Draupadi. These actions reveal his darker qualities—jealousy, pride, and an unrelenting desire for supremacy.

Despite his flaws, Duryodhana’s loyalty to his friends and allies is a notable trait that gives his character depth. His friendship with Karna is especially significant; recognizing Karna’s potential when others reject him due to his low caste, Duryodhana elevates Karna’s status by making him the king of Anga. This act binds Karna to him in loyalty, establishing a relationship based on mutual respect and solidarity. In a world where alliances are often transactional, Duryodhana’s friendship with Karna stands out, underscoring his capacity for loyalty and generosity toward those he deems worthy. This dimension of his character complicates him morally, portraying him as more than a simple villain: He is driven by intense emotions and attachments.

Duryodhana also embodies the Mahabharata’s exploration of dharma and adharma—of righteous duty and moral transgression. His tragic flaw lies in his inability to see beyond his own desires and his unwillingness to seek compromise, ultimately bringing ruin upon himself and his family. His death on the battlefield, at Bhima’s hands, marks the end of the Kaurava dynasty; his end serves as a cautionary story. Duryodhana’s relentless and intense pursuit of power leads to devastating consequences, illustrating the epic’s message about the perils of unchecked ambition and the inevitable downfall of those who defy the natural order of justice and duty. Through Duryodhana, the Mahabharata offers a commentary on the destructive nature of pride, the tragedy of familial conflict, and the moral complexities of leadership and loyalty.