She Who Became the Sun

Gender is by far the most complex and multilayered theme that Parker-Chan explores in She Who Became the Sun. On one hand, they discuss the traditional gender roles and the treatment of each within Mongol and Nanren societies; on the other, they explore individual gender identity and fluidity.

Both the Yuan dynasty and the Nanren society in the south are patriarchal. Sons inherit from their fathers. This can be seen in Zhu’s childhood and her father’s favoritism toward her brother, but also in Esen’s struggles to sire a son, to the point that he considers adoption. Esen is also dismissive of his wives, calling Ouyang lucky because, as a eunuch, he will never marry or have children. On the other hand, Ma Xiuying is distinctly aware of the limitations of women within Red Turban society. Although she is well-educated and comes from a good background, her advice is either ignored or assuaged by promises of male-dominated victory. Left Minister Chen notices her actions only so he can prevent her from warning Little Guo. Only Zhu (who has experienced both gender roles) seeks her out and considers her advice useful. Although Zhu initially encourages Ma to follow her desires rather than resign herself to the domestic duties society expects, by the end of the novel Ma succumbs to Zhu’s desire for the throne. The arguable difference is this time she chooses it (if unhappily) rather than having it forced upon her. Lady Rui of Lu is the only female ruler to openly take power in this novel. When Zhu suggests the idea to her, she initially replies that it is against “the pattern of the world” (i.e., the patriarchal social system) for women to rule (178), though she eventually reconsiders this position, even to the point of attempting to renege on her alliance with Zhu. Similarly, Madam Zhang is the mastermind of the Zhangs’ merchant empire. As Zhang Shide, who holds a Mandate of Heaven, is also Madam Zhang’s lover, she has a point when she tells Ouyang that she “has everything she needs” to rule (334), but that Ouyang is lacking.

Ouyang is particularly sensitive toward gender. He identifies as male, but because of his castration, he is constantly associated with women or dehumanized to the level of an animal or a thing. Zhu initially thinks he’s a girl. One of the most common insults Ouyang receives is being told that he’s “as beautiful as a woman” (270). As a result, he tries to appear as masculine as possible, including wearing armor beyond what is necessary and cultivating his martial skill to resemble the Mongol epitome of masculinity. His insecurity about his gender presentation is also contrasted by men who are comfortable in their masculinity. The discrimination Ouyang has faced because of his castration also leads him to believe that mutilation is worse than death, leading him to cut off Zhu’s right hand in vengeance. He also develops a hatred for women, using it to fuel his determination for his coup, even as it draws him closer to Esen. As Madam Zhang implies, Ouyang’s attraction to men stems not from a natural inclination, but from his hatred of women. For Ouyang, castration is the equivalent of a lowering of social status, from the perfection of manhood to the rejected other. Esen’s casual comparison of Ouyang to a woman is therefore a betrayal of their supposedly intimate relationship. It can be argued that Ouyang’s sword is a substitute for the manhood he feels he has lost—on the battlefield, he is perceived as masculine, or at least masculine-adjacent. Also, Esen’s death is the only time when Esen, emasculated by Ouyang’s coup, submits to Ouyang, rather than the other way around. It is an intimate execution, where Esen removed his cuirass “and walked towards Ouyang [who] met him halfway,” implying consent (392). Ouyang stabbing Esen with his sword could be interpreted as another kind of penetration, in which Ouyang reclaims his masculinity, and they are finally able to metaphorically consummate the relationship they danced around for much of the novel.

In contrast, Zhu’s experiences with gender can be interpreted as a quest for self-affirmation. From a young age, Zhu learns how dangerous being a female can be. After her brother’s death, she takes on his identity to ensure her survival. However, she quickly learns that simply taking on his name and wearing masculine clothes isn’t enough. She must take on male gender roles as well, essentially stamping out as much of her female identity as possible. While she can’t deny her femaleness entirely—she still must take special care to bathe in private and adjust for physical changes during puberty—her time as a monk does have an effect. Although she continues to use female pronouns (she/her) throughout the novel, society’s treatment of her as a man has allowed her to distance herself from the world of women to the point that her empathy with Lady Rui and the woman who attempted to stab Little Guo scares her. This empathy allows her to find solutions that a cisgender man would not, such as suggesting that Lady Rui rule Lu. This empathy and understanding is also why Zhu values Ma. Zhu recognizes Ma’s intellect and devotion to the point that she becomes angry on Ma’s behalf when Little Guo doesn’t value his betrothed. At the same time, Zhu can be considered non-binary. When Zhu reveals her gender to Ma, Ma describes her as someone “neither male nor female, but another substance entirely” (254). This “in-betweenness” is part of why Zhu feels a connection to Ouyang—he, too, exists in a liminal space between the two designated genders in their societies. However, their trajectories differ after Ouyang cuts off her hand. Because Zhu has never experienced being a “perfect [cisgender] man,” losing her hand is merely a temporary tactical setback, not a devastating loss. Her abdominal wound is also the metaphorical death of her conviction that her brother’s identity is the key to her fate. As Ma nurses her back to health and their relationship deepens, her intimacy with Ma also helps her become more comfortable with herself as she is—someone with “a woman’s body” that “didn’t house a woman” (341). This confidence is further evidenced when she confronts Jiao Yu, who began treating her with patriarchal contempt after he discovered her secret. She tells him, “It’s a secret without value” (366). Zhu’s acknowledgment of this change in self-perception is represented by the return of her brother’s name to his hungry ghost. When she officially takes control of the Red Turbans and declares her intention to become emperor, she renames herself Zhu Yuanzhang. In this way, she becomes a new person—a powerful leader, who, instead of riding a man’s metaphorical coattails, will claim her fate of greatness.