Starry Messenger: Cosmic Perspectives on Civilization

Tyson compares social divisions to divisions in physics, including the separate matter states; while matter is typically divided into three states—solid, liquid, and gas—at one point, the triple point, they can exist at the same time. Ambiguity exists in many other scientific areas, such as that matter consists of both particles and waves, that quantum physics allows for the Schrödinger’s cat paradox, or that the quantum computing qubit exists on a spectrum between 0 and 1 rather than as binary: “But a qubit can also be a continuous combination of 0 or 1: a little bit of 0 and a lot of 1; a lot of 0 and a little bit of 1; equal amounts of both; and everything in between” (127). Sexuality and gender also exist on a continuum, similar to the visible color spectrum, where the colors bleed together in a band with no clear divisions. Sex distinctions and even facial features occur on a spectrum throughout the animal kingdom and are not inherently feminine or masculine; the perceived gender binary is a social construct. Society has long perpetuated the cisgender heterosexual normative while abusing those who do not conform. Gender concepts often intensify through identity expression.

While riding a subway in winter, Tyson examined the passengers and noticed that he identified their gender based on secondary features—hair, cosmetics, and jewelry—rather than on natural traits. He researched and found that literature describes distinct masculine and feminine features; however, males can have feminine features and vice versa. Tyson argues, “They could have instead declared that the range of all people’s faces includes both soft and distinct features, without genderizing them” (131). Gender expression often accentuates the socially expected physical differences between men and women, and without such gender expression people would likely appear more androgynous. Humans implicitly categorize information. Tyson demonstrates by arguing that reporters will emphasize when hurricanes transition from one level to another, such as rising from a Category 3, with winds between 111 and 129 mph, to a Category 4, with winds 130-156 mph. However, the range between a low 3 and a high 3 is more significant than the transition from 3 to 4. Tyson argues that rainbow flags are an apt symbol of human self-identification, and he suggests that in the future gender and sexuality will be considered as occurring on a continuum rather than in distinct categories. He identifies the hypocrisy that many individuals who defend freedoms such as the right not to wear seatbelts or wear masks often try to create legislation to restrict gender expression. To achieve freedom, people must use evidence-based thinking and address hypocrisy. Tyson suggests that everyone take the hypocritic oath.

Stars have been organized into an increasingly complex system, and scientists have realized that stars exist on a spectral continuum. Similarly, human skin color, despite being labeled, occurs on a continuum. The distinctions between skin color are inaccurate and represent “racist proclivities.” For instance, President Obama was considered the first Black US president, but given his mixed-race heritage, he could have been considered the first White president if he had been elected in an African country. The reflectivity of a surface is called its albedo, and various human albedos, controlled by melanin, evolved corresponding to the humans’ locations: Those closer to the equator retained higher melanin levels, while those farther away developed lower melanin levels and thus lighter skin tones. The limited range of race descriptions contrasts with the cosmetics industry, which creates a broad spectrum of natural colored skin and hair products, and professional makeup artists mix various shades together when matching their clients’ skin tones. Skin color classification is often used for nefarious purposes, such as in the apartheid South Africa regime, where skin color was codified in the 1950 Population Registration Act. Violence occurs over other social divides, such as language, ethnicity, and politics.

Tyson discusses the movement to remove statues of people who demonstrated racist opinions and behaviors, saying that he is “not debilitated” by such statues but regards them as a “socio-emotional tax.” He counterargues against the glorification of the South, arguing, “Without the African slave trade there are no romanticized plantations to feed the South’s rose-colored memory of itself” (140). Tyson deliberates on a statue depicting Theodore Roosevelt on a horse flanked by an Indigenous American man and an African man. Although it now seems like “an abomination,” Tyson argues that the statue was progressive during the era when it was erected.

Competitions exemplify how some people enjoy feeling superior. This tendency can emerge in a sense of demographical superiority, which becomes more powerful when biased science is used to support such beliefs. Branches of science that study human behaviors and appearance are prone to bias, although issues arise in the more objective fields of mathematics and physical sciences. One example is the “hairy ball” theory, based on the idea that you can’t comb the hair on a ball flat; this metaphor ignores hair like Tyson’s, which can be combed into an Afro leaving no cowlicks. Tyson’s wife noted that many cosmologists struggle to relate to the idea that the universe is cyclical, and she questioned if it stemmed from males not relating to cycles as well since they do not menstruate. Tyson likewise demonstrates explicit biases in science and mathematics by sharing offensive pneumonic devices he has heard. Biased anthropological studies in the 1800s often reinforced cultural racism, such as scientists using Darwin’s theory of evolution to claim that Africans “were less evolved” (150)—a belief that continued in the scientific community well into the 1900s.

The first step in avoiding bias is for a person to search for flaws in their hypothesis before continuing forward. Tyson conducts a thought experiment in which the concept of racial superiority was flipped to favor Black supremacists. He compares White individuals and chimpanzees, citing how they both have more body hair, light-colored skin, and large ears. He also argues that Black individuals rarely contract lice and do not have Neanderthal DNA and that White people have higher rates of skin cancer, psoriasis, acne, and osteoporosis. He extends the conversation into mythology, describing the Ethiopian myth in which Ethiopians were said to have been perfectly baked by God, while those with lighter and darker skin had been erroneously baked. Tyson assumes that Black supremacy might manifest similarly to White supremacy.

Because hominids originated in Africa, the continent is genetically diverse. It contains both the shortest and tallest ethnic groups—the Watussi and the Mbutsi Pygmies, respectively. Egypt was highly advanced to the point that some credit aliens for ancient Egyptian technology and architecture. The skills of the top-10 Zambian chess players exceed those of players from wealthier countries, and 10-year-old Tanitoluwa, whose parents are Nigerian refugees, became the chess National Master in 2021. Tyson argues that heritage identity is arbitrary; for instance, a person born in Brooklyn may claim to be Italian because that’s where their parents were born. If one traces their heritage back far enough, however, one will find African roots. Ancestry is convergent, meaning that modern individuals share many ancestors. Society tends to progress, and Tyson poses the question as to whether the reader would rather live during an earlier era. Aliens likely would not notice the differences between individual humans, similar to how humans fail to see individual traits of animals, like goldfish or pigeons. Witnessing how humans segregate themselves, aliens might decide the species is not intelligent.