The Travels of Marco Polo

This is the story of the Great Khan's attempt to conquer Zipangu (which we now know as Japan). Polo gives detailed descriptions of the Japanese sovereign's palace, at the same time admitting that “so vast indeed are the riches of the palace that it is impossible to convey an idea of them” (3630-32). When the Mongols launched their great invasion fleet against Japan, they landed safely enough and made some headway but were undone by conflict between two commanders. Then, “it happened after a time that a north wind began to blow with great force, and the ships of the Tartars, which lay near the shore of the island, were driven foul of each other” (3643-44). Many ships foundered. Some escaped, however, and returned to the Chinese mainland.

A large number of Mongols survived the storm but had no ships with which to sail home. They hid from a pursuing party of Japanese and stole their boats, ending up in the Japanese capital and, at one point, seizing it. The Japanese response was to seal off the city and settle in for a siege:“At the end of this time [six months] the Tartars, despairing of aid, surrendered upon condition that their lives be spared” (3661-62). A coda to the story of the expedition is that the Great Khan, discovering that conflict between two of his commanders played a part in the defeat, had both commanders killed.

Polo describes the different-looking idols that the Japanese people have: of animals, of people with two faces or three heads or multiple arms:“The various ceremonies practiced before these idols are so wicked and diabolical that it would be nothing less than an abomination to give an account of them in this book” (3675-76). Polo also relates how these people practiced the consumption of human flesh but only for prisoners who cannot pay off their debts.

The king of this country provides to the Great Khan an annual tribute of elephants and wood, a practice that dates back many years to when such a strategy was employed to prevent the country's being taken over by the Khan's army. As in other countries that Polo has visited, in this one the king has the right of intercourse over all young women and often keeps them in his possession for some time before they can be married to others:“In the year 1285 when Marco Polo visited this place the king had 326 children, male and female” (3716-17).

This is a very large island, Polo says, having “a circumference of three thousand miles” (3723). The island is a successful commerce center, trading in cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and other spices. Also plentiful is gold.

The islands in the chapter title are listed as uninhabited and not described further. What is described in this chapter is a province called Locac, which is a large producer of brazilwood and gold. As well, “elephants are also found there and game is plentiful” (3739-40). This province, Locac, is the source of the porcelain shells that are used as currency in the several places mentioned in previous chapters.

The coast of this island is “wild and uncultivated” (3747), but the woods “abound with sweet-scented trees” (3747). Getting from Locac to Pentan requires sailors to lift their rudders because the sea “is not more than four fathoms in depth” (3748).

This island contains eight kingdoms, each of which features its own language. Among the details Polo gives of these kingdoms are that in one, the people practice the consumption of human flesh; in another can be found “a medium-sized monkey which has a face like that of a man” (3778-79); and in another elephants and unicorns are plentiful: “They are not at all those animals which are said to allow themselves to be taken by maidens, but are of a quite contrary nature” (3775).

Polo details the fortifications he had built on Samara, when he lived there for a time. The people who lived on the island do not have wheat but do have rice, from which they make wine. Polo states that “[t]heir fish is the finest that can be found anywhere” (3794), and they feature another beverage, one made from the juice of a palm tree. 

Lambri produces camphor and sapanwood:“In this kingdom there are men with tails a span in length, like those of the dog, but these creatures are not covered with hair” (3819-20). Lacking wheat and corn, the people who live in Fanfur get by with rice and milk and “a kind of meal” (3825).

The people of this island have no king and walk around unclothed:“Their woods abound in the noblest and most valuable trees, such as the white and the red sandal, those which bear the Indian coconuts, cloves and sapan” (3840-42).

Food is plentiful on this island: apples, Indian nuts, milk, rice, and “many other fruits different from those which grow in our country” (3847-48). These people also practice consuming human flesh.

Polo says that the island has suffered from wind erosion. Their diet consists in part of milk, rice, and “the wine drawn from trees” (3857). To be found aplenty on the island are many precious stones, among them amethyst, garnets, rubies, sapphires, and topazes: “The king is reported to possess the grandest ruby that ever was seen, a span in length, the thickness of a man’s arm, brilliant beyond description, and without a single flaw” (3859-61).

On Zeilan, the island described in the previous chapter, is said to be “the tomb of Adam” (3870) but, more commonly, the burial site of Sagamoni Borcan, who was once a son of the island's king but rejected all worldly temptations and went to live on a mountaintop where he died. The king, his father, had built an idol in his son's shape and demanded that his people worship his son as a god. The mountaintop is a pilgrimage destination for many people, who come to see the son's teeth and some of his hair, which have been preserved. The Great Khan himself has two of these teeth and some of this hair.

Four kings govern this province, in which oysters are plentiful:“The greater proportion of the pearls obtained from the fisheries in this gulf are round and of a good luster” (3899). Polo relates how those who dive for oysters benefit from protection from enchanters: “By means of their magic, these men have the power of stupefying these fish so as to prevent them from doing mischief” (3902-03). The fishermen give the enchanters some of the profit from the pearl sales.

Polo includes many more details about the province and its inhabitants. The people, including the king, wear scant clothing. The king also wears, “suspended from the neck and reaching to the breast, a fine silken string containing 104 large, handsome pearls and rubies” (3914-15). He wears gold arm bracelets and golden leg bands. He has a great many wives. The king's servants, when the king dies and is cremated, “throw themselves into the same fire and are consumed with the royal corpse, thereby signifying their intention of accompanying him in another life” (3927-28). In the same way, a woman whose husband sacrifices himself to the gods joins him on his funeral pyre. 

Thomas, one of Jesus's Apostles, is said to have been killed in the province of Maabar. Christians making pilgrimage to the spot leave with dirt, which is red in color, from the very spot where he died:“They often employ it afterwards in the performance of miracles and give it, diluted with water, to the sick, and thus cure many disorders” (4017-18). Miracles are said to have occurred on this spot, where Polo says Thomas died an accidental death.

Diamonds are found in abundance in this kingdom, and people go to great lengths to procure them, braving mountains “infested with dangerous snakes” (4043) and finding the diamonds at times in the droppings of the eagles and storks that sometimes consume them.

This province, Polo says, is where the Brahmans, the highest caste in Hunduism, originated. He includes many details about the virtues and practices of the Brahmans, including that “[n]othing can induce them to lie, even though their lives depend upon it” (4055). The people are very much prone to planning or revising actions based on superstition. For example, “when they are going out of their houses, if they hear anyone sneeze they turn back into the house and stay at home” (4068-69).

This port city is a strong, peaceful one, presided over by a king who has hundreds of wives. The residents are very partial to a leaf called tembul, which they often have in their mouths:“Persons of rank have the leaf prepared with camphor and other aromatic drugs, and also with a mixture of quicklime” (4095-96). They also spit juice into the face of another person in order to provoke individual combat.

Dyewood, indigo, and pepper are found here in great abundance. The people make wine from palm sugar; the result is higher in alcohol than grape-based wine. They have no grain except for rice, of which they have a great amount. Many exotic animals are found in this kingdom: “There are entirely black tigers; and various birds of the parrot kind—some of them as white as snow—with the feet and the beak red” (4111-12).

Forests largely cover this province, in which are many animals, among them leopards, lynxes, and tigers. Also to be found with regularity are long-tailed monkeys and apes, “so formed and of such a size as to have the appearance of men” (4124-25).

The kingdom is known for its river and for its many passes, which are difficult to navigate and “which render invasion nearly impossible” (4131). As a result, Ely has its own king and its own language.

Prevalent in this kingdom are cinnamon, ginger, Indian nuts, and pepper. The people make “the finest and most beautiful cottons that can be found in any part of the world” (4148-49). Pirates are constantly hassling merchant ships.

Pirates plague this kingdom as well:“When in their cruises they seize a traveling merchant they immediately make him drink a dose of seawater, which produces a violent purging. In this way they discover whether he has swallowed any pearls or jewels” (4158-60). Cotton, ginger, indigo, and pepper can be found in large quantities. 

Polo states that “[t]he country produces large quantities of a sort of incense which is not white, but of a dark color” (4173-74). This is a popular item with trade ships.

Cotton and indigo are primary crops here. Animal skins serve as items of exchange in return for gold, silver, and copper.

The kingdom is known as a commerce center. Polo also relates how he was informed that “the priests who serve in the temples of the idols are the most cruel in the world” (4188).

Another trade center, Kesmacoran has its own king and its own language. There is milk in abundance. They eat rice and wheaten foods, “together with flesh” (4193).

As the names of the islands suggest, one island has only males inhabitants and the other has only females on it. Men are allowed to stay on the female-only island for three consecutive months out of the year. Daughters grow up with mothers; sons do as well but go at age 12 to live with fathers:“Both fresh and salted fish is sold to traders, but the principal object of such traders is to purchase ambergris, which is collected there” (4211-12). Ambergris is a waxy substance found in the digestive system of sperm whales and would have been used to create perfumes and musk. 

The people here live on rice, flesh, and milk. They take advantage of the plentiful ambergris and oil. Socotra is a destination for many ships, including those wanting to offload stolen goods. Polo states that“[t]he inhabitants deal more in sorcery and witchcraft than any other people” (4227).

Four sheiks govern this large island. One thing sold in abundance is elephant teeth, “as those animals abound in the country” (4238). This island is known for a large, strong bird (that the people call a roc) that is large enough to seize an elephant and the camelopard, a kind of giraffe.

These are large people, who have large mouths, eyes, ears, and heads, and other body parts as well. They are also strong: “One of them is capable of carrying what would be a load for four of our people” (4720). Elephants are prevalent, and their tusks add to a brisk trade. The people have no horses so fight on the backs of camels and elephants.

The people in this province bear branding marks to identify their religion. They are very often at war with a nearby province, Nubia. Polo states that“[i]n the country there are elephants, lions, giraffes, and a variety of other animals, such as wild asses, and monkeys that resemble men, together with many birds, wild and domestic” (4321-23). Gold is prevalent; another commodity is sesame oil.

Polo relates in detail how goods are transported from Aden to Alexandria: from ship to camel to boat. One of the things often transported is Arabian horses. 

Dates and frankincense are prime commodities of the city. Wine is made not from grapes, which do not grow therein, but from dates, rice, and sugar. 

A busy port powers this city, which produces frankincense. Another prime commodity is Arabian horses.

Another water-based city, this one has a good harbor populated by many merchant ships. The leader's fortress geographically controls which ships get access to the harbor. Dates and fish are in high supply.

This is a very hot place; however, “every house is provided with ventilators by means of which they introduce air at will to the different floors, and into every apartment” (4388).