The Wide Wide Sea: Imperial Ambition, First Contact and the Fateful Final Voyage of Captain James Cook

In 1776, James Cook had risen to prominence as a celebrated navigator and post-captain. He was highly regarded by scientists and society, even posing for renowned portrait painters and receiving honors like the Copley Medal. Cook’s recent return from his second circumnavigation of the globe solidified his status. During this voyage, he extensively explored the southern oceans in search of the hypothetical continent, Terra Australis Incognita. Despite thorough and perilous searches, he concluded that the continent did not exist, contributing to the idea of “negative discovery.” Cook’s expeditions provided valuable maps and insights, revealing uncharted territories. His skepticism and methodical approach garnered respect and high accolades, including membership in the Royal Society. Cook’s explorations debunked myths and advanced geographic knowledge, although he remained convinced that any landmass in the far south was uninhabitable and locked in ice, unreachable by contemporary ships.

Although James Cook did not find the mythical southern continent, his voyages revealed many islands in the southern seas, some previously unknown to Europeans. Cook’s open-minded and empathetic approach to the Indigenous cultures he encountered distinguished him from his contemporaries. He documented their rituals, warfare, religion, agriculture, and economy without attempting to impose European values. Despite the occasional violent conflicts, Cook generally maintained peaceful interactions. Cook recognized his role in furthering imperial ambitions but remained more interested in scientific discovery and cultural understanding. His journals reflect his Enlightenment-driven ethic of impartial observation. Cook’s leadership style was also notable for its humanity; he cared deeply about his crew’s well-being and implemented innovative measures for hygiene and diet, effectively combating scurvy on long voyages. This success extended the reach of British exploration, enabling longer and healthier sea voyages and marking a significant advancement in maritime history.

In 1774, a young Polynesian man named Mai arrived in Britain aboard HMS Adventure and became an instant celebrity. Mai hailed from Raiatea, a culturally rich island in Polynesia, but his life was upended by a brutal invasion from Bora Bora, leading to his family’s displacement and his quest for revenge. Injured during an early encounter with British forces, Mai believed that English weapons could help him reclaim his homeland. After impressing navigator Captain Tobias Furneaux, Mai traveled to England and quickly became a darling of London society. Under the patronage of the naturalist Joseph Banks, Mai was introduced to the English elite, including an audience with King George III. Mai’s presence in England highlighted the paternalistic attitudes of Europeans toward Indigenous people. His stay also underscored the broader imperial interests of England in the Pacific region, which were intertwined with the personal stories of individuals like Mai.

At age 46, James Cook decided to retire from exploration, taking up a comfortable position at the Greenwich Hospital, a residence for elderly sailors. This role offered financial security and allowed him to spend time with his family while writing about his voyages. However, Cook quickly grew restless, missing the thrill of the open sea. Despite his initial contentment, he felt confined and uninspired by the tranquility of Greenwich. The Admiralty’s plan for a new expedition, which involved returning Mai to Tahiti and exploring the northwest coast of North America, reignited Cook’s adventurous spirit. Ultimately, Cook decided to lead the mission himself, driven by a desire for discovery and the promise of a significant monetary reward for finding the Northwest Passage. His decision marked the end of his brief retirement and the beginning of another ambitious journey.

After visiting King George III, Joseph Banks arranged for Mai to be inoculated against smallpox by Dr. Thomas Dimsdale. Though initially fearful and despairing, Mai successfully underwent the procedure and embarked on a tour of the English countryside, where he charmed everyone with his good humor and manners. Mai learned various English customs, such as horseback riding, hunting, and playing backgammon. His natural politeness and adaptability won him many admirers, particularly among Englishwomen. Despite rumors of his romantic liaisons, Mai remained a beloved guest. He also displayed his culinary skills, introducing a Polynesian-style barbecue that impressed his hosts.

The quest for the Northwest Passage had obsessed European explorers, particularly the British, for nearly three centuries. Many expeditions ended in tragedy, with explorers suffering from frostbite, scurvy, and starvation. The drive to find the passage was fueled by both commercial and geopolitical motivations, as it promised a shorter route to Asia and a means to outmaneuver the Spanish and French. The British obsession persisted across generations, each applying new theories and technologies to the elusive goal. Among the advocates was Daines Barrington, whose unorthodox ideas about ice formation led to further expeditions. Despite failed attempts and dangerous encounters, Barrington’s confidence remained unshaken, and he advocated for another voyage led by James Cook. The inaccurate Stählin’s map suggested a possible route, and Barrington’s patriotic appeal convinced Lord Sandwich to support the expedition, as he hoped for a significant achievement for England.

After his arrival in London, Mai became a social sensation, attending various events, meeting notable figures, and even sitting for portraits by renowned artists such as Joshua Reynolds and Nathaniel Dance-Holland. Despite his lack of formal education, Mai exhibited remarkable manners and quickly adapted to English customs. His charm and natural politeness won him many admirers, including Samuel Johnson, who praised his etiquette. However, Mai struggled with homesickness and the harsh realities of city life. Joseph Banks ensured that Mai received a comprehensive education, including religious instruction, though Mai found some concepts difficult to grasp. As time passed, Mai grew increasingly impatient to return to Tahiti, prompting Banks to take him on another trip to the English countryside, where Mai found solace and joy in the natural environment.

On June 8, a farewell dinner was held aboard the ship the Resolution as it prepared for its third voyage, this time aiming to explore the Northwest Passage. Lord Sandwich and other high-ranking officials attended, and despite Cook’s positive remarks, the ship had been inadequately prepared due to the Admiralty’s focus on the American Revolution. The Resolution’s condition was compromised by corrupt contractors and neglected repairs. Amidst a festive atmosphere, the impending expedition highlighted the British Empire’s paradoxical state—striving for expansion while struggling to retain its American colonies. Cook faced the dual challenge of preparing for the voyage while completing his account of his second expedition. His commitment to writing his own narrative, despite his self-perceived lack of literary skill, underscored his dedication to authenticity. The historical backdrop of 1776, marked by significant works by Edward Gibbon and Adam Smith, reflected the tensions and ambitions of an empire at a crossroads.

On June 23, Captain Cook bid farewell to his family as he prepared for his third voyage on the Resolution. The ship was stocked with supplies and animals, the latter being a particular burden for Cook. Amid suspicions from other European nations, Cook’s mission was cloaked in intrigue. The departure coincided with escalating tensions in America, where the Declaration of Independence had just been signed. Cook’s crew included talented officers and even some Americans. The ship’s final preparations were fraught with challenges, including the unresolved imprisonment of Charles Clerke, the Discovery’s captain. Despite these obstacles, Cook received his secret instructions from the Admiralty, outlining the primary goal of finding a Northwest Passage. On July 12, Cook set sail, leaving orders for Clerke to join him in Cape Town, and embarked on a voyage filled with historical significance and personal sacrifice.