Theatre of the Oppressed

In Aristotle’s tragedy, the catastrophe is the moment during which the consequences of the protagonist’s misguided actions reach a climax, and the happy ending of the story is subverted. The function of the catastrophe is to solidify for spectators the ramifications of vice and unlawful action.

For Aristotle’s construction to work, Boal explains that empathy for the tragic hero must be present in the spectator. In this explanation, empathy requires more than merely understanding the experiences of the protagonist. Instead, spectators must live vicariously through the hero on the stage.

Boal applies a new definition of ethos that diverges from its traditional meaning as the credibility of the speaker. In the context of tragedy, ethos represents the action of the tragic hero. For the tragedy to work as a form of catharsis, all ethos of the hero must be sound, with the exception of one flaw.

Boal utilizes the traditional definitions of form, matter, and substance within the model of Greek philosophy to explore Aristotle’s ideas, which were informed by the thinkers who preceded him. Form refers to the essential nature of something—its blueprint or essence. Plato saw forms as perfect and unchanging. Aristotle’s philosophy suggests that forms are nearly perfect, or trending toward perfection. It is the work of the artist to help carry forward the infinite task of striving toward perfection. Matter refers to the physical aspect of the concept—the partner to form. Substance is the combination of the two. Aristotle saw all three—form, matter, and substance—as separate variables acting according to their individual laws.

These terms originate from Niccolò Machiavelli’s political treatise The Prince, in which the Italian philosopher offers advice to governments on how best to maintain power. Fortuna refers to the luck of the ruler. Because the world is subject to change and chance, Machiavelli argues that rulers must be adaptable and must find creative ways to use these unexpected changes to their advantage.

Although virtù resembles the English word “virtue,” it actually denotes the attributes of a ruler that are used to maintain power. Boal’s exploration of these terms in Machiavelli’s work is a natural transition from his initial discussion of Aristotle’s influence on art. According to Boal, Aristotle defined “virtue” through a Western lens, and because the Greek philosopher was unaware of his own shades of bias, he emphasized traits like justice and courage over more communal values. Thus, Boal argues that Aristotle’s construction of morality is rooted in the maintenance of power. Machiavelli later advocated for the maintenance of power through a specific set of traits in The Prince, and Boal ultimately subverted the Italian philosopher’s work with his production of The Mandrake.

“Forum theatre” is a performance arts methodology developed by Boal. In this technique, the play opens with a short performance that illustrates a social or political issue that will later be unpacked with the help of the audience. A moderator (often played by a joker or jester) engages the audience in testing, challenging, discussing, and questioning the process. The audience offers solutions to the problems by changing characters, plot points, or intervening. This technique is a powerful way for audiences and actors to explore the complexities of different issues.

This singular tragic fall of the hero is the hamartia. It is the only part of the hero that must be destroyed. In Aristotle’s construction, the wrongful ethos—the hamartia—conflicts with the ethos of society.

The Joker System is the form of theater developed by Boal and others at the Arena Theatre. In this expression of performance arts, the Joker is the director or facilitator of the performance. All the actors learn the parts of all the characters, and the audience participates in the development.

The Mandrake is a comedic five-act play written by Niccolò Machiavelli in the 16th century. In the play, the otherwise virtuous Callimaco lusts after Lucrezia, who is married to an older man who desperately wants an heir. Callimaco convinces Lucrezia’s husband to drug his young wife with the mandrake root so that a servant can impregnate her. Disguised as that servant, Callimaco sleeps with Lucrezia, and she leaves her husband.

Marxism is a political and philosophical lens developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. This ideology focuses on class relations and conflict. Bertolt Brecht, the German playwright, was highly influenced by Marxist writing and thinking, and he incorporated Marxist principles into his approach to performance arts.

Boal references Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics throughout the first chapter, drawing a line of connection between Aristotle’s politicized understanding of morality and his theories about art and theater. Nicomachean Ethics is a compilation of the Greek philosopher’s lectures on ethics and morality. In this work, Aristotle defines virtue as the point between two extremes, which are known as vices.

Peripeteia refers to the catalyst that changes the destiny of the tragic hero. For example, the Greek mythological character of Creon learns that his son and wife are dead, igniting a journey of discovery.

A poetic-political system is a term used by Boal to refer to the intrinsic relationship between power, politics, and art. Boal argues that Aristotle’s writing about theater, art, and tragedy created the framework for art to mimic and affirm political structures and hierarchies of power.

The tragic hero is the protagonist of tragic works. Boal explains that theater did not always rely on a singular character to act as the protagonist. Instead, early works gave this position to the collective known as the chorus. The later shift to a single tragic hero represents the shift in function of theater toward catharsis. Aristotle proposes that spectators need a hero to attach to and learn from.