65 pages • 2 hours read
Daniel Walker HoweWhat Hath God Wrought
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 2007A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Chapter 19-FinaleChapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 19 Summary: “The War Against Mexico”
Howe recounts General Zachary Taylor’s strategic movements in early May 1846, as the US Army of Occupation faced General Mariano Arista’s Mexican forces near Fort Texas. Despite Taylor’s eventual retreat to protect his supply base at Port Isabel, Arista’s attempt to encircle Taylor’s forces was delayed, leading to a Mexican siege of Fort Texas and blocking Taylor’s return. Ulysses S. Grant, then a young second lieutenant, experienced his first hostile gunfire amidst these events, marking a significant moment in his military career.
The chapter delves into Taylor’s background, his reputation as “Old Rough and Ready” (761), and his longstanding service in the US Army. His adversary, Mariano Arista, is portrayed as a formidable and respected leader, with notable personal and professional connections to the United States.
Despite heavy casualties in the Siege of Fort Texas, neither army gained a decisive victory, but the US forces, particularly the “flying artillery” led by Major Sam Ringgold, demonstrated superior firepower and mobility. This battle marked the beginning of a series of engagements that underscore the technological and tactical superiority of US forces during the Mexican-American War. The Resaca de la Palma battle and the occupation of Matamoros highlight Taylor’s tactical decisions and marked a turning point in the conflict.
The chapter explores the broader implications of the US victory, including the strategic and moral challenges posed by the war. The narrative then shifts to explore the political and military developments that follow, including the mixed reactions within the US and the complex interplay of ambitions, strategies, and ideologies that define this phase of the war.
The chapter concludes with a reflection on the significance of the War Against Mexico, not only in terms of territorial gains and military achievements but also in its impact on the national psyche, the military careers of key figures like Grant and Taylor, and the enduring questions of morality, leadership, and the cost of expansionism.
Chapter 20 Summary: “The Revolutions of 1848”
The year 1848 was marked by revolutionary fervor and significant developments in the United States, influenced by the European Revolutions of 1848. The initial euphoria in the United States over the revolutions in Europe, seen as a vindication of American democratic ideals, gradually gave way to a complex reality wherein enthusiasm was tempered by the nation’s internal divisions and debates over slavery, expansion, and the role of America on the world stage.
The revolutions across Europe in 1848, ignited by a desire for liberal reforms and national self-determination, resonated with many Americans, reinforcing the notion of the United States as a beacon of liberty. However, the narrative quickly complicates this idealized connection, highlighting the contradictions and moral complexities within American society, particularly regarding slavery and territorial expansion. Howe uses this contrast to highlight the hypocrisy in celebrating democratic principles abroad while ignoring injustices at home, revealing deep moral and political schisms that will continue throughout the era.
Different segments of American society responded differently to the European upheavals. For some, the revolutions were a call to advocate for similar liberal ideals domestically, while for others, they reinforced conservative stances, particularly among Southern Democrats who viewed the European chaos with suspicion, fearing it might embolden abolitionist movements at home.
The European Revolutions and the ongoing Mexican-American War stirred debates about Manifest Destiny, democracy, and the expansion of slavery into new territories. These debates culminated in the divisive presidential election of 1848, in which candidates navigated a country deeply divided over its future.
Immigration, nativism, and the economic transformations spurred by gold discoveries in California also contributed to political complexities in 1848. These developments, along with the influx of Irish immigrants fleeing famine, contributed to a rapidly changing American society, facing new economic opportunities and challenges, along with an ever-growing divide over slavery.
Finale Summary: “A Vision of the Future”
A modest gathering in 1848 at Jane Hunt’s house in Waterloo, New York, was a major turning point in women’s rights. The meeting was led by the distinguished abolitionist Lucretia Mott and attended by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a dynamic advocate for women’s rights. Mott, a Quaker preacher and advocate for reform, brought a wealth of experience from her activism against slavery while Stanton, frustrated by the limitations placed on women in society, brought a sharp intellect and a vision for equality. Together, they planned the first Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, setting in motion a campaign for gender equality that would eventually reshape American society.
The convention, held in July 1848 at the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Seneca Falls, was attended by around 300 individuals despite many being occupied with the harvest. It was here that the Declaration of Sentiments, crafted by Stanton and others, laid out a revolutionary vision for women’s rights, drawing inspiration from the Declaration of Independence to assert the equality of men and women and listing grievances that highlighted the systemic discrimination faced by women. This document, calling for significant social and legal changes, including the controversial demand for women’s suffrage, became a cornerstone of feminist activism.
Despite the skepticism and outright mockery from many quarters, including some abolitionist allies and the press, the convention represented a watershed moment in the struggle for women’s rights. The inclusion of men in the discussion, the decision to call for the right to vote, and the subsequent adoption of the Declaration of Sentiments marked the beginning of an organized women’s rights movement in the United States.
The aftermath of the convention saw a mix of reactions, with some signatories withdrawing their support amid widespread criticism while others, like Charlotte Woodward, remained steadfast. Woodward’s perseverance would see her become the only original signer to vote in 1920, following the ratification of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote. The convention also indirectly supported the growth of feminist theology and the push for women’s ordination.
The book’s Finale contextualizes the Seneca Falls Convention within the broader movements of 1848, a year marked by revolutionary fervor worldwide. It underscores the innovative use of emerging communication technologies, like the telegraph, which helped spread the message of the convention and the women’s rights movement more broadly, illustrating the intersection of technological progress, social reform, and the enduring struggle for equality.
This moment in 1848, thus, not only highlighted the contradictions within American democracy—where ideals of freedom and equality coexisted with the reality of gender and racial oppression—but also signaled the beginning of a long journey towards realizing those ideals for all citizens, irrespective of gender. Howe presents the spirit of a nascent movement, poised on the edge of societal change, driven by a vision of a more inclusive and equitable future.
Chapter 19-Finale Analysis
The War Against Mexico exemplifies The Political and Social Challenges of Territorial Expansion. The conflict, initiated under the guise of Manifest Destiny, not only extended the nation’s borders but also exacerbated the moral and ethical contradictions inherent in American expansionism. This war, while achieving territorial gains, deepened the national divide over the issue of slavery, as newly acquired lands prompted the contentious question of whether they would be slave-holding or free. This debate highlighted the schism between the North and South, propelling the nation toward the Civil War.
The War Against Mexico, as Howe articulates, was not just a military conflict but a manifestation of deeper political and social tensions within the United States. It highlighted the aggressive nature of American expansionism, raising ethical questions about the right of a democratic republic to conquer and annex sovereign territories. The US justification for the war, premised on disputed territorial claims and the desire to secure its southern border, masked broader ambitions to extend its dominion to the Pacific, underscoring the nation’s willingness to use military force to achieve continental dominance.
Howe delves into the diplomatic and political maneuverings that preceded the war, including the annexation of Texas and the failed attempts to purchase California and New Mexico from Mexico. These actions, coupled with President James K. Polk’s assertive stance, exacerbated tensions, leading to a war that many Americans viewed with ambivalence or outright opposition. Critics of the war, including prominent figures like Henry David Thoreau and John Quincy Adams, saw it as an unjust aggression against a weaker neighbor and a morally bankrupt attempt to expand slavery’s reach.
The Revolutions of 1848 reflect the global ripple effects of religious and social movements, with America observing the European upheavals through a lens tinted by its own moral and ideological battles. These global movements resonated with the American public, yet also highlighted the stark contradictions within a nation that preached liberty abroad while sustaining slavery at home. The European revolutions, coupled with domestic religious movements, fueled debates on democracy, reform, and the abolition of slavery, illustrating the complex interplay between global events and national identity formation.
The narrative’s culmination in the Finale, focusing on the Seneca Falls Convention, underscores The Rise of Religious and Social Movements on shaping American society’s moral and ethical landscape. The convention, a direct result of the ferment stirred by these movements, marked a significant step toward gender equality, challenging societal norms and legal frameworks that relegated women to second-class status. This event, emblematic of the broader struggle for rights and recognition, underscored the ongoing tension between America’s democratic ideals and its practices, particularly regarding gender and racial equality.
Religious meetings and gatherings were often one of the few socially acceptable arenas for women to assume public roles, whether as speakers, organizers, or participants. This visibility and experience laid the groundwork for more focused advocacy on women’s rights. Figures like Lucretia Mott, who emerged from the Quaker tradition with its egalitarian views on gender, played pivotal roles in both abolition and the early women’s rights movement. The religious conviction that all human beings were equal in the eyes of God underpinned the ideological foundation of the Seneca Falls Convention, influencing its demands for legal reforms, educational opportunities, and the right to vote. Moreover, the Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence and presented at the Seneca Falls Convention, echoed the Protestant emphasis on individual rights and conscience. It articulated a vision of gender equality that challenged the prevailing norms and called for a societal reformation that would align more closely with the moral and ethical principles espoused by religious movements of the time.
