What Hath God Wrought

The American Renaissance was a transformative moment in the nation’s cultural history catalyzed by William Ellery Channing’s sermon in 1819. Channing’s address in Baltimore not only merged Protestant Christianity with Enlightenment ideals, positing science and the Bible as compatible, but also laid the groundwork for a broader, progressive interpretation of the Bible and, by extension, the Constitution. This synthesis heralded a new dawn of intellectual and cultural expansion that transcended traditional Calvinist dogma, advocating for human moral improvement and the broadening of intellectual horizons.

Channing’s rejection of the Trinity and predestination, and his advocacy for Unitarian Christianity, sparked widespread debate within religious and intellectual circles, making his sermon as a manifesto for a liberal religious outlook. This sermon circulated extensively, becoming a pivotal text in American pamphlet literature and encapsulating a shift towards a more inclusive and humane theological discourse.

The chapter further explores the ripple effects of this intellectual shift, observing its impact on social reforms, education, and the abolition of slavery and imperialism. Channing’s advocacy for the education of the laboring classes and opposition to slavery positioned him as a seminal figure in the nexus of religion, reform, and intellectualism. His views influenced contemporaries and later figures, contributing to the advancement of public education, women’s rights, and a more equitable society.

Channing’s Christian humanism is a precursor to the Transcendentalist movement, which further expanded the American intellectual and cultural landscape. Transcendentalism, with its emphasis on the individual’s direct experience of the divine and the inherent goodness of people, found resonance in the works of Emerson, Thoreau, and Fuller, among others, marking a period of vibrant literary and philosophical activity known as the American Renaissance.

Howe details the historical journey leading to the annexation of Texas, highlighting the significant roles played by various individuals, technological advances, and political maneuvers. The chapter begins with the early 19th-century backdrop, setting the stage with Erasmo Seguín and Stephen Austin’s entrance into Texas, then a part of New Spain, emphasizing the initial efforts to populate Texas with settlers from the United States for economic and strategic purposes. It narrates the transition of Texas from Spanish control to becoming a part of Mexico, and the eventual settlement of Anglo Americans, which laid the groundwork for the Texan independence movement.

The narrative covers the political and social dynamics between the Anglo settlers and Mexican authorities, including issues over slavery, cultural and religious differences, and the struggle for autonomy within the Mexican federation. In addition to being a battle for independence, the Texan Revolution was driven by a mix of economic, political, and social factors. Key players in the conflict included Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1794-1876) and Texas Secretary of State Stephen Austin (1793-1836). The Texan Revolution’s aftermath led to the US’s efforts to acquire Texas, sparking political debates over its annexation.

The chapter provides a detailed account of the technological innovation of the telegraph by Samuel Morse. This technological breakthrough significantly enhanced the efficiency of commercial transactions, enabling real-time updates on market prices and facilitating quicker business decisions, thus driving economic growth. For national expansion, the telegraph played a critical role by improving coordination across vast territories, supporting the logistics of railroads, and bolstering military communication. Its ability to instantly connect distant parts of the country also fostered a sense of national unity and identity, laying the groundwork for the modern telecommunications infrastructure that would continue to shape societal transformations.

The narrative concludes with the strategic political maneuvers by John Tyler and others to secure Texas’s annexation to the US, against a backdrop of domestic and international opposition, showcasing the complex interplay of politics, technology, and imperial ambition in the shaping of American history during this period. The annexation of Texas is presented as a pivotal moment, influenced by a diverse array of factors including the telegraph’s development, which marked a significant expansion of the United States and set the stage for further territorial and technological advancements.

The presidency of James Knox Polk shaped the trajectory of the United States during the mid-19th century. Polk’s presidency, beginning with his inauguration on March 4, 1845, set the stage for a significant expansion of American territory. Polk pursued the annexation of Texas, sought the acquisition of California and New Mexico, and was determined to settle the Oregon Territory dispute with Britain. His ambition was not only to expand the territory of the United States but also to extend its influence and open new avenues for commerce and trade, particularly towards Asia through the Pacific.

Polk’s determination to acquire Texas and resolve the Oregon Territory dispute brought him into direct conflict with Mexico and Great Britain. Mexico viewed the annexation of Texas as an act of aggression, leading to strained relations and setting the stage for the Mexican-American War. Polk positioned troops along the disputed Texas-Mexico border, which eventually incited the conflict that Polk sought, enabling the United States to significantly expand its territory as a result.

The chapter also delves into the internal politics of Polk’s administration, highlighting his political acumen in balancing the interests of different factions within his party and the nation. Polk’s policies, particularly the annexation of Texas and the pursuit of territory in the Southwest, were intertwined with the issue of slavery’s expansion into new territories, exacerbating regional tensions within the United States.

Moreover, Polk’s vision of Manifest Destiny and his administration’s actions significantly impacted the Indigenous populations and the Mexican residents of the annexed territories. The acquisition of these lands led to their displacement and the imposition of American laws, altering the demographic and cultural landscapes of the newly acquired territories.

The chapter also reflects on the consequences of Polk’s expansionist policies, both immediate and long-term. While they resulted in significant territorial gains, such as the inclusion of Texas, parts of the Oregon Territory, and the vast territories acquired through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the Mexican-American War, these actions also sowed the seeds for future conflicts, particularly the Civil War. The question of whether newly acquired territories would permit slavery exacerbated sectional divisions, highlighting the complex interplay between expansionism, slavery, and other political dynamics of the era.