Woman in the Nineteenth Century

Fuller examines the evolving nature of marriage and the challenges society faces in redefining the institution. While figures like George Sand and Mary Wollstonecraft represent an aspiration toward new roles for women, true reformers must lead lives that reflect the values they advocate—lives governed by knowledge, law, and moral clarity. Fuller acknowledges the imperfections of marriages built on intellectual companionship but highlights their progressive nature, emphasizing that they show an “onward tendency.”

She praises partnerships such as William and Mary Howitt, who share literary work and life equally and uses this as an example of how intellectual companionship can enrich marriage. Harmony in marriage does not require identical roles but rather a mutual respect for individual differences. Fuller also elevates the concept of “religious” marriage, which involves a shared spiritual purpose and pilgrimage toward a common goal.

Drawing from examples, Fuller illustrates how men and women can complement one another in marriage, not through dominance or submission but through equal partnership. She contrasts refined marriages, like that of Count Zinzendorf and his wife, with the harsh realities women like the Indigenous American woman known as the Flying Pigeon, who embodied virtue and strength, faced. Despite cultural differences, true partnership and mutual respect can arise when both parties value the spiritual and moral aspects of their union.

Fuller presents an idealized view of marriage through the story of Panthea and Abradatus from Xenophon’s writings. The story exemplifies noble love, self-sacrifice, and equality in marriage. Panthea’s deep admiration for her husband and her willingness to support him in battle shows her loyalty and strength. After Abradatus’s death, Panthea’s grief and eventual self-destruction underscore the depth of their bond. Fuller uses this story to highlight a model of marriage where mutual respect, love, and a shared sense of duty elevate both partners, contrasting it with the flawed conceptions of marriage prevalent in her time. She also praises Xenophon’s portrayal of women and men in his writings for their refinement and wisdom, offering a template for relationships based on equality and deep emotional connection.

Fuller continues her exploration of women’s evolving roles in society, specifically through the lens of female authorship and the changing perception of women who remain unmarried. Fuller acknowledges the triumphs of women in fields traditionally dominated by men, particularly in literature and education. She highlights how figures like Lady Mary Montagu and Mary Somerville broke gender barriers, proving that women could excel intellectually and creatively. She highlights that these women serve as examples for future generations, showing that women can develop their intellects and contribute meaningfully to society.

Fuller critiques the education system of her time, noting that while women have been given more opportunities to learn, the methods and subjects taught are often ill-suited to their needs. Many women are still educated by men who simply teach what they know without considering the specific intellectual development of women. She also notes the social pressures that push women into marriage for security rather than intellectual or emotional fulfillment, undermining their potential for self-reliance and growth.

Fuller defends the unmarried woman, or the “old maid,” a figure society often derides. Fuller challenges this stigma, arguing such women are not incomplete but that they have unique opportunities to pursue self-development and contribute to society. Fuller also emphasizes the importance of recognizing women as full individuals.

Continuing her critique of societal attitudes toward aging women, Fuller argues that society often devalues women as they grow older, focusing on their fading beauty rather than recognizing the potential for wisdom and dignity that can come with age. She contrasts this common perception with examples of historical and mythological women, such as the Persian Sibyl and Iphigenia, whose years and experiences enhanced their strength, wisdom, and purpose. These women, Fuller suggests, serve as more meaningful representations of what aging can offer.

Fuller explores how some women throughout history have embraced an independent life, dedicating themselves to spiritual or intellectual pursuits rather than traditional roles. She shares the story of an Indigenous American woman who believed she was betrothed to the sun and lived independently, providing a powerful example of self-sufficiency and spiritual dignity. Fuller contends that such examples demonstrate how women can lead fulfilled lives outside of marriage and societal expectations.

Fuller also addresses the growing recognition of women’s spiritual and intellectual capacities. She notes that society is increasingly acknowledging the value of women’s contributions, particularly in realms of intuition and mysticism. Fuller sees a potential for women to reclaim their dignity and power through their spiritual and intellectual gifts, urging a broader, more respectful view of women’s roles as they age.